Chapter Overviews

Chapter 12: Renaissance and Reformation

Chapter Overviews

The Italian Renaissance introduced Europe to a secular viewpoint and a boom in artistic and intellectual development. Intellectual change led to Christian humanism and, finally, the Reformation—a break with the Catholic Church and the birth of Lutheranism.

Section 1 The Renaissance
The Renaissance began with the emergence of a secular urban society in the wealthy city-states of Italy. Milan, Venice, and Florence were particularly prosperous trading centers. Italy's riches prompted France to invade. Spain came to Italy's defense, leading to war and Spanish domination. It was in this context that the writer Machiavelli developed his famous thesis on political power. Most people in Europe were peasants, and nobles held considerable power. In the towns and cities, there were clear divisions between the classes, ranging from the wealthy and influential patricians to the miserably poor. During this period, Johannes Gutenberg produced the first book, the Bible, with the Gutenberg press.

Section 2 Ideas and Art of the Renaissance
Humanism was a key intellectual movement of the Renaissance, focusing on the study of the ancient Greek and Roman classics. While early humanists emphasized solitary learning, fifteenth century humanists stressed intellectualism in the service of the state. Humanism encouraged the use of classical Latin. However, European writers such as Dante and Chaucer wrote in their own vernacular. Humanist schools taught a broad range of liberal studies. Renaissance artists sought to imitate nature, but also to make human beings the focus of their works. Painting, sculpture, and architecture were among the revolutionary achievements of Renaissance art. Some Renaissance artists, including Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, produced masterpieces in all three disciplines. Artistic developments in Italy were a major influence on art in northern Europe.

Section 3 The Protestant Reformation
Changes in intellectual thought set the stage for the Protestant Reformation. Christian humanists such as Erasmus were critical of Church corruption and said the Church had become involved in politics rather than matters of the spirit. The widespread selling of indulgences prompted a monk and professor named Martin Luther to issue his famous Ninety-Five Theses criticizing Church abuses. Luther also rejected some Catholic doctrines. Luther's movement sparked a religious revolution. Many German states became key allies for Luther as he broke with the Catholic Church and established a new religion. The emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was ultimately forced by the Peace of Augsburg to let German states choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism.

Section 4 The Spread of Protestantism
Division in Protestantism appeared in Switzerland under the leadership of Ulrich Zwingli and then John Calvin. Calvinists' belief in predestination spurred missionaries to spread their faith. In England, the Reformation was based on the political need of Henry VIII to remarry and produce a male heir. Although Queen Mary later tried to reverse the break with the Catholic Church, by the end of her reign Protestantism was firmly entrenched. Anabaptists believed in the complete separation of church and state and were regarded as a danger to society. In response, the Catholic Reformation revitalized the Catholic Church through the Jesuits, the reform of the papacy, and the Council of Trent.