Introduction to Criminal Justice

English Glossary


actus reus  Criminal conduct—specifically, intentional or criminally negligent (reckless) action or inaction that causes harm.
adjudication  The juvenile court equivalent of a trial in criminal court, or the process of rendering a judicial decision regarding the truth of the facts alleged in a petition.
administrative segregation  The keeping of inmates in secure isolation so that they cannot harm others.
aggravating factors or circumstances  In death sentencing, facts or situations that increase the blameworthiness for a criminal act.
aggressive patrol  The practice of having an entire patrol section make numerous traffic stops and field interrogations.
allocution  The procedure at a sentencing hearing in which the convicted defendant has the right to address the court before the sentence is imposed. During allocution, a defendant is identified as the person found guilty and has a right to deny or explain information contained in the PSI if his or her sentence is based on it.
anomie  For Durkheim, the dissociation of the individual from the collective conscience.
anomie  For Merton, the contradiction between the cultural goal of achieving wealth and the social structure's inability to provide legitimate institutional means for achieving the goal. For Cohen, it is caused by the inability of juveniles to achieve status among peers by socially acceptable means.
appellate jurisdiction  The power of a court to review a case for errors of law.
apprenticeship system  The method by which middle- and upper-class children were taught skilled trades by a master.
arbitration  A dispute resolution process that brings disputants together with a third party (an arbitrator) who has the skills to listen objectively to evidence presented by both sides of a conflict, to ask probing and relevant questions of each side, and to arrive at an equitable solution to the dispute.
arraignment  A pretrial stage to hear the information or indictment and to allow a plea.
arraignment  A pretrial stage; its primary purpose is to hear the formal information or indictment and to allow the defendant to enter a plea.
arrest  The seizing and detaining of a person by lawful authority.
arrest  The seizure of a person or the taking of a person into custody, either actual physical custody, as when a suspect is handcuffed by a police officer, or constructive custody, as when a person peacefully submits to a police officer's control.
arrest warrant  A written order directing law enforcement officers to arrest a person. The charge or charges against a suspect are specified on the warrant.
atavist  A person who reverts to a savage type.
Auburn system  An early system of penology, originating at Auburn Penitentiary in New York, in which inmates worked and ate together in silence during the day and were placed in solitary cells for the evening.
bail bond or bail  Usually a monetary guarantee deposited with the court that is supposed to ensure that the suspect or defendant will appear at a later stage in the criminal justice process.
bail  Usually a monetary guarantee deposited with the court to ensure that suspects or defendants will appear at a later stage in the criminal justice process.
banishment  A punishment, originating in ancient times, that required offenders to leave the community and live elsewhere, commonly in the wilderness.
bench trial  A trial before a judge without a jury.
bench warrant or capias  A document that authorizes a suspect's or defendant's arrest for not appearing in court as required.
beyond a reasonable doubt  The standard of proof necessary to find a defendant guilty in a criminal trial.
bifurcated trial  A two-stage trial (unlike the one-stage trial in other felony cases) consisting of a guilt phase and a separate penalty phase.
binding-out system  Practice in which children were "bound over" to masters for care. However, under the binding-out system, masters were not required to teach youths a trade.
biological inferiority  According to biological theories, a criminal's innate physiological makeup produces certain physical or genetic characteristics that distinguish criminals from noncriminals.
bionics  The replacing of human body parts with mechanical parts.
booking  The administrative recording of an arrest. Typically, the suspect's name, the charge, and perhaps the suspect's fingerprints or photograph are entered in the police blotter.
booking  The process in which suspects' names, the charges for which they were arrested, and perhaps their fingerprints or photographs are entered on the police blotter.
Chicago School  A group of sociologists at the University of Chicago who assumed in their research that delinquent behavior was a product of social disorganization.
civil law  One of two general types of law practiced in the United States (the other is criminal law); a means of resolving conflicts between individuals. It includes personal injury claims (torts), the law of contracts and property, and subjects such as administrative law and the regulation of public utilities.
class struggle  For radical criminologists, the competition among wealthy people and among poor people and between rich people and poor people, which causes crime.
classical theory  A product of the Enlightenment, based on the assumption that people exercise free will and are thus completely responsible for their actions. In classical theory, human behavior, including criminal behavior, is motivated by a hedonistic rationality, in which actors weigh the potential pleasure of an action against the possible pain associated with it.
classification facility  A facility to which newly sentenced offenders are taken so that their security risks and needs can be assessed and they can be assigned to a permanent institution.
clear and convincing evidence  The standard of proof required in some civil cases and, in federal courts, the standard of proof necessary for a defendant to make a successful claim of insanity.
cocorrectional facilities  Usually small, minimum-security institutions that house both men and women with the goal of normalizing the prison environment by integrating the daytime activities of the sexes.
collective conscience  The general sense of morality of the times.
college academies  Schools where students pursue a program that integrates an associate's degree curriculum in law enforcement or criminal justice with the state's required peace officer training.
community corrections  The subfield of corrections in which offenders are supervised and provided services outside jail or prison.
community policing  A contemporary approach to policing that actively involves the community in a working partnership to control and reduce crime.
commutation  Reduction of the original sentence given by executive authority, usually a state's governor.
complaint  A charging document specifying that an offense has been committed by a person or persons named or described; usually used for misdemeanors and ordinance violations.
CompStat  A technological and management system that aims to make the police better organized and more effective crime fighters. It combines innovative crime analysis and geographic information systems, that is, crime mapping (described in Chapter 6) with the latest management principles.
conditional release  A form of release that requires that a suspect/defendant maintain contact with a pretrial release program or undergo regular drug monitoring or treatment.
confession  An admission by a person accused of a crime that he or she committed the offense charged.
conflict theory  A theory that assumes that society is based primarily on conflict between competing interest groups and that criminal law and the criminal justice system are used to control subordinate groups. Crime is caused by relative powerlessness.
conjugal visits  An arrangement whereby inmates are permitted to visit in private with their spouses or significant others to maintain their personal relationship.
constable  The peacekeeper in charge of protection in early English towns.
constable-watch system  A system of protection in early England in which citizens, under the direction of a constable, or chief peacekeeper, were required to guard the city and to pursue criminals.
contraband  An illegal substance or object.
contract security  Protective services that a private security firm provides to people, agencies, and companies that do not employ their own security personnel or that need extra protection.
convict code  A constellation of values, norms, and roles that regulate the way inmates interact with one another and with prison staff.
copicide  A form of suicide in which a person gets fatally shot after intentionally provoking police officers.
cottage reformatories  Correctional facilities for youths, first developed in the late 1800s, that were intended to closely parallel family life and remove children from the negative influences of the urban environment. Children in those facilities lived with surrogate parents, who were responsible for the youths' training and education.
crime control model  One of Packer's two models of the criminal justice process. Politically, it reflects traditional conservative values. In this model, the control of criminal behavior is the most important function of criminal justice.
crime index  An estimate of crimes committed.
crime index offenses cleared  The number of offenses for which at least one person has been arrested, charged with the commission of the offense, and turned over to the court for prosecution.
crime rate  A measure of the incidence of crime expressed as the number of crimes per unit of population or some other base.
criminal anthropology  The study of "criminal" human beings.
criminal law  One of two general types of law practiced in the United States (the other is civil law); "a formal means of social control [that uses] rules. . . interpreted [and enforced] by the courts. . . to set limits to the conduct of the citizens, to guide the officials, and to define. . . unacceptable behavior."
criminal sanctions or criminal punishment  Penalties that are imposed for violating the criminal law.
criminalization process  The way people and actions are defined as criminal.
criminological theory  The explanation of criminal behavior, as well as the behavior of police, attorneys, prosecutors, judges, correctional personnel, victims, and other actors in the criminal justice process.
crisis intervention  A counselor's efforts to address some crisis in an inmate's life and to calm the inmate.
cryonics  A process of human hibernation that involves freezing the body.
custody level  The classification assigned to an inmate to indicate the degree of precaution that needs to be taken when working with that inmate.
cybercrime  The use of computer technology to commit crime.
dark figure of crime  The number of crimes not officially recorded by the police.
day reporting centers  Facilities that are designed for offenders who would otherwise be in prison or jail and that require offenders to report regularly to confer with staff about supervision and treatment matters.
defendant  A person against whom a legal action is brought, a warrant is issued, or an indictment is found.
deprivation model  A theory that the inmate society arises as a response to the prison environment and the painful conditions of confinement.
determinate sentence  A sentence with a fixed period of incarceration, which eliminates the decision-making responsibility of parole boards.
differential association  Sutherland's theory that persons who become criminal do so because of contacts with criminal patterns and isolation from anticriminal patterns.
directed patrol  Patrolling under guidance or orders on how to use patrol time.
discretion  The exercise of individual judgment, instead of formal rules, in making decisions.
disposition  The juvenile court equivalent of sentencing in criminal court. At the disposition hearing, the court makes its final determination of what to do with the juvenile officially labeled delinquent.
diversion  Organized, systematic efforts to remove individuals from further processing in criminal justice by placing them in alternative programs; diversion may be pretrial or posttrial.
doctrine of fundamental fairness  The rule that makes confessions inadmissible in criminal trials if they were obtained by means of either psychological manipulation or "third-degree" methods.
doctrine of legal guilt  The principle that people are not to be held guilty of crimes merely on a showing, based on reliable evidence, that in all probability they did in fact do what they are accused of doing. Legal guilt results only when factual guilt is determined in a procedurally regular fashion, as in a criminal trial, and when the procedural rules designed to protect suspects and defendants and to safeguard the integrity of the process are employed.
domestic terrorism  The unlawful use, or threatened use, of force or violence by a group or individual based and operating entirely within the United States or its territories without foreign direction committed against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.
double jeopardy  The trying of a defendant a second time for the same offense when jeopardy attaches in the first trial and a mistrial was not declared.
dual court system  The court system in the United States, consisting of one system of state and local courts and another system of federal courts.
due process model  One of Packer's two models of the criminal justice process. Politically, it embodies traditional liberal values. In this model, the principal goal of criminal justice is at least as much to protect the innocent as it is to convict the guilty.
due process of law  The procedures followed by courts to ensure that a defendant's constitutional rights are not violated.
due process of law  The rights of people suspected of or charged with crimes.
duress  Force or coercion as an excuse for committing a crime.
eight index crimes  The Part I offenses in the FBI's uniform crime reports. They were (1) murder and nonnegligent manslaughter, (2) forcible rape, (3) robbery, (4) aggravated assault,(5) burglary,(6) larceny-theft,(7) motor vehicle theft, and (8) arson, which was added in 1979.
electronic monitoring  An arrangement that allows an offender's whereabouts to be gauged through the use of computer technology.
entrapment  A legal defense against criminal responsibility when a person, who was not already predisposed to it, is induced into committing a crime by a law enforcement officer or by his or her agent.
ex post facto law  A law that (1) declares criminal an act that was not illegal when it was committed, (2) increases the punishment for a crime after it is committed, or (3) alters the rules of evidence in a particular case after the crime is committed.
excessive force  A measure of coercion beyond that necessary to control participants in a conflict.
exclusionary rule  The rule that illegally seized evidence must be excluded from trials in federal courts.
extinction  A process in which behavior that previously was positively reinforced is no longer reinforced.
feminist theory  A perspective on criminality that focuses on women's experiences and seeks to abolish men's control over women's labor and sexuality.
field interrogation  A temporary detention in which officers stop and question pedestrians and motorists they find in suspicious circumstances.
flat-time sentencing  Sentencing in which judges may choose between probation and imprisonment but have little discretion in setting the length of a prison sentence.Once an offender is imprisoned, there is no possibility of reduction in the length of the sentence.
frisking  Conducting a search for weapons by patting the outside of a suspect's clothing, feeling for hard objects that might be weapons.
full enforcement  A practice in which the police make an arrest for every violation of law that comes to their attention.
general deterrence  The attempt to prevent people in general from engaging in crime by punishing specific individuals and making examples of them.
general deterrence  The prevention of people in general or society at large from engaging in crime by punishing specific individuals and making examples of them.
general jurisdiction  The power of a court to hear any type of case.
GIS crime mapping  A technique that involves the charting of crime patterns within a geographic area.
good time  The number of days deducted from a sentence by prison authorities for good behavior or for other reasons.
grand jury  A group of citizens who meet to investigate charges coming from preliminary hearings.
grand jury  Generally a group of 12 to 23 citizens who meet in closed sessions to investigate charges coming from preliminary hearings or to engage in other responsibilities.A primary purpose of the grand jury is to determine whether there is probable cause to believe that the accused committed the crime or crimes.
grand jury indictment  A written accusation by a grand jury charging that one or more persons have committed a crime.
"grass eaters"  Officers who occasionally engage in illegal and unethical activities, such as accepting small favors, gifts, or money for ignoring violations of the law during the course of their duties.
habeas corpus  A court order requiring that a confined person be brought to court so that his or her claims can be heard.
halfway houses  Community-based residential facilities that are less secure and restrictive than prison or jail but provide a more controlled environment than other community correctional programs.
hands-off philosophy  A philosophy under which courts are reluctant to hear prisoners' claims regarding their rights while incarcerated.
harm  The external consequence required to make an action a crime.
hearing officer  A lawyer empowered by the juvenile court to hear juvenile cases.
highway patrol model  A model of state law enforcement services in which officers focus on highway traffic safety, enforcement of the state's traffic laws, and the investigation of accidents on the state's roads, highways, and property.
home confinement  A program that requires offenders to remain in their homes except for approved periods of absence; commonly used in combination with electronic monitoring.
houses of refuge  The first specialized correctional institutions for youths in the United States.
hung jury  The result when jurors cannot agree on a verdict. The judge declares a mistrial. The prosecutor must decide whether to retry the case.
identity theft  The transfer or use without legal authority of the identity documentation of another person with the intent to commit, aid, or abet any activity that constitutes a felony.
imitation, or modeling  A means by which a person can learn new responses by observing others without performing any overt act or receiving direct reinforcement or reward.
importation model  A theory that the inmate society is shaped by the attributes inmates bring with them when they enter prison.
incapacitation  The removal or restriction of the freedom of those found to have violated criminal laws.
incarceration rate  A figure derived by dividing the number of people incarcerated by the population of the area and multiplying the result by 100,000; used to compare incarceration levels of units with different population sizes.
indeterminate sentence  A sentence with a fixed minimum and maximum term of incarceration, rather than a set period.
indictment  A document that outlines the charge or charges against a defendant.
informal juvenile justice  The actions taken by citizens to respond to juvenile offenders without involving the official agencies of juvenile justice.
information  A document that outlines the formal charge(s) against a suspect, the law(s) that have been violated and the evidence to support the charge(s).
initial appearance  A pretrial stage in which a defendant is brought before a lower court to be given notice of the charge(s) and advised of her or his constitutional rights.
insanity  Mental or psychological impairment or retardation as a defense against a criminal charge.
intake screening  The process by which decisions are made about the continued processing of juvenile cases. Decisions might include dismissing the case, referring the youth to a diversion program, or filing a petition.
intensive-supervision probation and parole (ISP)  An alternative to incarceration that provides stricter conditions, closer supervision, and more treatment services than do traditional probation and parole.
intermediate sanctions  Sanctions that, in restrictiveness and punitiveness, lie between traditional probation and traditional imprisonment or, alternatively, between imprisonment and traditional parole.
internal affairs investigations unit  The police unit that ferrets out illegal and unethical activity engaged in by the police.
international terrorism  Violent acts dangerous to human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or any state, or that would be a criminal violation if committed within the jurisdiction of the United States or any state. These acts appear to be intended to intimidate or coerce a civilian population, influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion, or affect the conduct of a government by assassination or kidnapping.International terrorist acts occur outside the United States or transcend national boundaries in terms of the means by which they are accomplished, the persons they appear intended to coerce or intimidate, or the locale in which the perpetrators operate or seek asylum.
jail  A facility, usually operated at the local level, that holds convicted offenders and unconvicted persons for relatively short periods.
jailhouse lawyer  An inmate skilled in legal matters.
job stress  The harmful physical and emotional outcomes that occur when the requirements of a job do not match the capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker.
jurisdiction  The right or authority of a justice agency to act in regard to a particular subject matter, territory, or person.
just deserts  The punishment rationale based on the idea that offenders should be punished automatically, simply because they have committed a crime—they "deserve" it—and the idea that the punishment should fit the crime.
juvenile delinquency  A special category of offense created for youths who, in most U.S. jurisdictions, are persons between the ages of 7 and 18.
labeling theory  A theory that emphasizes the criminalization process as the cause of some crime.
learning theory  A theory that explains criminal behavior and its prevention with the concepts of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, punishment, and modeling, or imitation.
left realists  A group of social scientists who argue that critical criminologists need to redirect their attention to the fear and the very real victimization experienced by working-class people.
legal definition of crime  An intentional violation of the criminal law or penal code, committed without defense or excuse and penalized by the state.
legality  The requirement (1) that a harm must be legally forbidden for the behavior to be a crime and (2) that the law must not be retroactive.
less-eligibility principle  The position that prisoners should receive no service or program superior to the services and programs available to free citizens without charge.
limbic system  A structure surrounding the brain stem that, in part, controls the life functions of heartbeat, breathing, and sleep. It also is believed to moderate expressions of violence; such emotions as anger, rage, and fear; and sexual response.
lockup  A very short-term holding facility that is frequently located in or very near an urban police agency so that suspects can be held pending further inquiry.
mala in se  Wrong in themselves. A description applied to crimes that are characterized by universality and timelessness.
mala prohibita  Offenses that are illegal because laws define them as such. They lack universality and timelessness.
mandatory release  A method of prison release under which an inmate is released after serving a legally required portion of his or her sentence, minus good-time credits.
mandatory sentencing  Sentencing in which a specified number of years of imprisonment (usually within a range) is provided for particular crimes.
"meat eaters"  Officers who actively seek ways to make money illegally while on duty.
mediation  A dispute resolution process that brings disputants together with a third party (a mediator) who is trained in the art of helping people resolve disputes to everyone's satisfaction. The agreed-upon resolution is then formalized into a binding consent agreement.
medical model  A theory of institutional corrections, popular during the 1940s and 1950s, in which crime was seen as symptomatic of personal illness in need of treatment.
mens rea  Criminal intent; a guilty state of mind.
mere suspicion  The standard of proof with the least certainty; a "gut feeling." With mere suspicion, a law enforcement officer cannot legally even stop a suspect.
merit system  A system of employment whereby an independent civil service commission, in cooperation with the city personnel section and the police department, sets employment qualifications, performance standards, and discipline procedures.
milieu therapy  A variant of group therapy that encompasses the total living environment so that the environment continually encourages positive behavioral change.
mitigating factors or circumstances  In death sentencing,facts or situations that do not justify or excuse a criminal act but reduce the degree of blameworthiness and thus may reduce the punishment.
myths ñBeliefs based on emotion rather than analysis.
national crime victimization surveys  A source of crime statistics based on interviews in which respondents are asked whether they have been victims of any of the FBI's index offenses (except murder, nonnegligent manslaughter, and arson) or other crimes during the past 6 months. If they have, they are asked to provide information about the experience.
necessity defense  A legal defense against criminal responsibility used when a crime has been committed to prevent a more serious crime.
negative reinforcement  The removal or reduction of a stimulus whose removal or reduction increases or maintains a response.
negligence  The failure to take reasonable precautions to prevent harm.
neoclassical theory  A modification of classical theory in which it was conceded that certain factors, such as insanity, might inhibit the exercise of free will.
net widening  A phenomenon that occurs when the offenders placed in a novel program are not the offenders for whom the program was designed. The consequence is that those in the program receive more severe sanctions than they would have received had the new program remained unavailable.
nolle prosequi (nol. pros.)  The notation placed on the official record of a case when prosecutors elect not to prosecute.
nolo contendere  Latin for "no contest." When defendants plead nolo, they do not admit guilt but are willing to accept punishment.
nonenforcement  The failure to routinely enforce prohibitions against certain behaviors.
norm  Any standard or rule regarding what human beings should or should not think, say, or do under given circumstances.
Institution of social control  An organization that persuades people, through subtle and not-so-subtle means, to abide by the dominant values of society.
offenses known to the police  A crime index, reported in the FBI's uniform crime reports, composed of crimes that are both reported to and recorded by the police.
operational styles  The different overall approaches to the police job.
original jurisdiction  The authority of a court to hear a case when it is first brought to court.
overcriminalization  The prohibition by the criminal law of some behaviors that arguably should not be prohibited.
panopticon  A prison design consisting of a round building with tiers of cells lining the inner circumference and facing a central inspection tower.
pardon  A "forgiveness" for the crime committed that stops further Criminal processing.
parens patriae  The legal philosophy justifying state intervention in the lives of children when their parents are unable or unwilling to protect them.
parole  A method of prison release whereby inmates are released at the discretion of a board or other authority before having completed their entire sentences; can also refer to the community supervision received upon release.
parole guidelines  Structured instruments used to estimate the probability of parole recidivism and to direct the release decisions of parole boards.
patriarchy  Men's control over women's labor and sexuality.
peacemaking criminology  An approach that suggests that the solutions to all social problems, including crime, are the transformation of human beings, mutual dependence, reduction of class structures, creation of communities of caring people, and universal social justice.
Peel's Principles of Policing  A dozen standards proposed by Robert Peel, the author of the legislation resulting in the formation of the London Metropolitan Police Department. The standards are still applicable to today's law enforcement.
penal code  The criminal law of a political jurisdiction.
penal sanction  An ideal characteristic of criminal law: the principle that violators will be punished or at least threatened with punishment by the state.
Pennsylvania system  An early system of U.S. penology in which inmates were kept in solitary cells so that they could study religious writings, reflect on their misdeeds, and perform handicraft work.
penology  The study of prison management and the treatment of offenders.
personal jurisdictioní A court's authority over the parties to a lawsuit.
petition  A legal form of the police complaint that specifies the charges to be heard at the adjudication.
placing out  The practice of placing children on farms in the Midwest and West to remove them from the supposedly corrupting influences of their parents and the cities.
plea bargaining or plea negotiating  The practice whereby the prosecutor, the defense attorney, the defendant, and—in many jurisdictions—the judge agree on a specific sentence to be imposed if the accused pleads guilty to an agreed-upon charge or charges instead of going to trial.
police cadet program  A program that combines a college education with agency work experience and academy training. Upon graduation, a cadet is promoted to police officer.
politicality  An ideal characteristic of criminal law, referring to its legitimate source. Only violations of rules made by the state, the political jurisdiction that enacted the laws, are crimes.
positive reinforcement  The presentation of a stimulus that increases or maintains a response.
posses  Groups of able-bodied citizens of a community, called into service by a sheriff or constable to chase and apprehend offenders.
postmodernism  An area of critical thought that, among other things, attempts to understand the creation of knowledge and how knowledge and language create hierarchy and domination.
power differentials  The ability of some groups to dominate other groups in a society.
precedent  A decision that forms a potential basis for deciding the outcomes of similar cases in the future; a by-product of decisions made by trial and appellate court judges, who produce case law whenever they render a decision in a particular case.
preliminary hearing  A pretrial stage used in about one-half of all states and only in felony cases. Its purpose is for a judge to determine whether there is probable cause to support the charge or charges imposed by the prosecutor.
preponderance of evidence  Evidence that more likely than not outweighs the opposing evidence, or sufficient evidence to overcome doubt or speculation.
presentence investigation (PSI)  An investigation conducted by a probation agency or other designated authority at the request of a court into the past behavior, family circumstances, and personality of an adult who has been convicted of a crime, to assist the court in determining the most appropriate sentence.
presentence investigation reports  Reports, often called PSIs or PSIRs, that are used in the federal system and the majority of states to help judges determine the appropriate sentence. They are also used in classifying probationers, parolees, and prisoners according to their treatment needs and security risk.
presumptive sentencing  Sentencing that allows a judge to retain some sentencing discretion, subject to appellate review. The legislature determines a sentence range for each crime.
preventive detention  Holding suspects or defendants in jail without giving them an opportunity to post bail, because of the threat they pose to society.
preventive patrol  Patrolling the streets with little direction; between responses to radio calls, officers are "systematically unsystematic" and observant in an attempt to both prevent and ferret out crime. Also known as random patrol.
prisonization  The process by which an inmate becomes socialized into the customs and principles of the inmate society.
privatization  The involvement of the private sector in the construction and the operation of confinement facilities.
probable cause  The amount of proof necessary for a reasonably intelligent person to believe that a crime has been committed or that items connected with criminal activity can be found in a particular place. It is the standard of proof needed to conduct a search or to make an arrest.
probation  A sentence in which the offender, rather than being incarcerated, is retained in the community under the supervision of a probation agency and required to abide by certain rules and conditions to avoid incarceration.
probation conditions  Rules that specify what an offender is and is not to do during the course of a probation sentence.
procedural law  The body of law that governs the ways substantive laws are administered; sometimes called adjective or remedial law.
proportionality review  A review in which the appellate court compares the sentence in the case it is reviewing with penalties imposed in similar cases in the state. The object is to reduce, as much as possible, disparity in death penalty sentencing.
proprietary security  In-house protective services that a security staff provides for the entity that employs it.
protective custody  The segregation of inmates for their own safety.
psychopaths, sociopaths, or antisocial personalities  Persons characterized by no sense of guilt, no subjective conscience, and no sense of right and wrong. They have difficulty in forming relationships with other people; they cannot empathize with other people.
public safety officers  Police department employees who perform many police services but do not have arrest powers.
punishment  The presentation of an aversive stimulus to reduce a response.(3) The imposition of a penalty for criminal wrongdoing.
racial profiling  The stopping and/or detaining of individuals by law enforcement officers based solely on race.
radical nonintervention  A practice based on the idea that youths should be left alone if at all possible, instead of being formally processed.
radical theories  Theories of crime causation that are generally based on a Marxist theory of class struggle.
reasonable suspicion  A standard of proof that is more than a gut feeling. It includes the ability to articulate reasons for the suspicion. With reasonable suspicion, a law enforcement officer is legally permitted to stop and frisk a suspect.
recidivism  The return of probationers to crime during or after probation.
reform, industrial, or training schools  Correctional facilities for youths, first developed in the late 1800s, that focused on custody. Today, those institutions are often called training schools, and although they may place more emphasis on treatment, they still rely on custody and control.
regularity  An ideal characteristic of criminal law: the applicability of the law to all persons, regardless of social status.
rehabilitation  The attempt to "correct" the personality and behavior of convicted offenders through educational, vocational, or therapeutic treatment and to return them to society as law-abiding citizens.
reintegration  The process of rebuilding former ties to the community and establishing new ties after release from prison.
reintegrative shamingá A strategy in which disappointment is expressed for the offender's actions, the offender is shamed and punished, and, more importantly, following the expression of disappointment and shame is a concerted effort on the part of the community to forgive the offender and reintegrate him or her back into society.
relative deprivation  Refers to inequalities (in resources, opportunities, material goods, etc.) that are defined by a person as unfair or unjust.
relative powerlessness  In conflict theory, the inability to dominate other groups in society.
release on own recognizance (ROR)  A release secured by a suspect's written promise to appear in court.
restitution  Money paid or services provided by a convicted offender to victims, their survivors, or the community to make up for the injury inflicted.
restorative justice  A process whereby an offender is required to contribute to restoring the health of the community, repairing the harm done, and meeting victims' needs.
retribution  A justification for punishment that implies repayment for an offense committed.
revenge  The punishment rationale expressed by the biblical phrase, "An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth." People who seek revenge want to pay back offenders by making them suffer for what they have done.
revocation  The repeal of a probation sentence or parole, and substitution of a more restrictive sentence, because of violation of probation or parole conditions.
role  The rights and responsibilities associated with a particular position in society.
role conflict  The psychological stress and frustration that results from trying to perform two or more incompatible responsibilities.
role expectation  The behavior and actions that people expect from a person in a particular role.
rules of discovery  Rules that mandate that a prosecutor provide defense counsel with any exculpatory (evidence evidence favorable to the accused that has an effect on guilt or punishment) in the prosecutor's possession.
searches  Explorations or inspections, by law enforcement officers, of homes, premises, vehicles, or persons, for the purpose of discovering evidence of crimes or persons who are accused of crimes.
seizures  The taking of persons or property into custody in response to violations of the criminal law.
selective enforcement  The practice of relying on the judgment of the police leadership and rank-and-file officers to decide which laws to enforce.
self-incrimination  Being a witness against oneself. If forced, it is a violation of the Fifth Amendment.
self-report crime surveys  Surveys in which subjects are asked whether they have committed crimes.
shire reeve  In medieval England, the chief law enforcement officer in a territorial area called a shire; later called the sheriff.
shock incarceration  The placement of offenders in facilities patterned after military boot camps.
slave patrols  The earliest form of policing in the South. They were a product of the slave codes.
snitch system  A system in which staff learn from inmate informants about the presence of contraband, the potential for disruptions, and other threats to security.
social contract  An imaginary agreement to sacrifice the minimum amount of liberty necessary to prevent anarchy and chaos.
social control theory  A view in which people are expected to commit crime and delinquency unless they are prevented from doing so.
social disorganization  The condition in which the usual controls over delinquents are largely absent, delinquent behavior is often approved of by parents and neighbors, there are many opportunities for delinquent behavior, and there is little encouragement, training, or opportunity for legitimate employment.
special jurisdiction  The power of a court to hear only certain kinds of cases.
special or specific deterrence  The prevention of individuals from committing crimes again by punishing them.
specificity  An ideal characteristic of criminal law, referring to its scope. Although civil law may be general in scope, criminal law should provide strict definitions of specific acts.
stare decisis  The principle of using precedents to guide future decisions in court cases; Latin for "to stand by decided cases."
state police model  A model of state law enforcement services in which the agency and its officers have the same law enforcement powers as local police but can exercise them anywhere within the state.
status offenses  Acts that are not crimes when committed by adults but are illegal for minors (for example, truancy or running away from home).
structured fines, or day fines  Fines that are based on defendants' ability to pay.
subject matter jurisdiction  The power of a court to hear a particular type of case.
subpoena  A written order issued by a court that requires a person to appear at a certain time and place to give testimony.It can also require that documents and objects be made available for examination by the court.
sub-rosa economy  The secret exchange of goods and services among inmates; the black market of the prison.
substantive law  The body of law that defines criminal offenses and their penalties.
Summary or bench trials  Trials without a jury.
system  A smoothly operating set of arrangements and institutions directed toward the achievement of common goals.
tech prep (technical preparation)  A program in which area community colleges and high schools team up to offer 6 to 9 hours of college law enforcement courses in the eleventh and twelfth grades, as well as one or two training certifications, such as police dispatcher or local corrections officer. Students who graduate are eligible for police employment at age 18.
technical violations  Failure to abide by the technical rules or conditions of probation or parole (for example, not reporting regularly to the probation officer), as distinct from commission of a new criminal act.
temporary-release programs  Programs that allow jail or prison inmates to leave the facility for short periods to participate in approved community activities.
terrorismó The systematic use of terror or unpredictable violence against governments, publics, or individuals to attain a political objective; the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives;or premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.
theory  An assumption (or set of assumptions) that attempts to explain why or how things are related to each other.
three I's of police selection  Three qualities of the American police officer that seem to be of paramount importance:intelligence, integrity, and interaction skills.
tithing system  A private self-help protection system in early medieval England, in which a group of 10 families, or a tithing, agreed to follow the law, keep the peace in their areas, and bring law violators to justice.
tort  A violation of the civil law.
total institution  An institutional setting in which persons sharing some characteristics are cut off from the wider society and expected to live according to institutional rules and procedures.
traffic accident investigation crews  In some agencies,the special units assigned to all traffic accident investigations.
transfer, waiver, or certification  The act or process by which juveniles who meet specific age, offense, and (in some jurisdictions) prior-record criteria are transferred to criminal court for trial.
transportation  A punishment in which offenders were transported from their home nation to one of that nation's colonies to work.
trial de novo  A trial in which an entire case is reheard by a trial court of general jurisdiction because there is an appeal and there is no written transcript of the earlier proceeding.
undercriminalization  The failure to prohibit some behaviors that arguably should be prohibited.
uniform crime reports  A collection of crime statistics and other law enforcement information gathered under a voluntary national program administered by the FBI.
uniformity  An ideal characteristic of criminal law: the enforcement of the laws against anyone who violates them, regardless of social status.
unsecured bond  An arrangement in which bail is set but no money is paid to the court.
utility  The principle that a policy should provide "the greatest happiness shared by the greatest number."
venire  The pool from which jurors are selected.
venue  The place of the trial. It must be geographically appropriate.
victim-impact statements  Descriptions of the harm and suffering that a crime has caused victims and their survivors.
voir dire  The process in which potential jurors who might be biased or unable to render a fair verdict are screened out.
warrant  A written order from a court directing law enforcement officers to conduct a search or to arrest a person.
workhouses  European forerunners of the modern U.S.prison, where offenders were sent to learn discipline and regular work habits.
writ of certiorari  A written order, from the U.S. Supreme Court to a lower court whose decision is being appealed, to send the records of the case forward for review.
writ of habeas corpus  An order from a court to an officer of the law to produce a prisoner in court to determine if the prisoner is being legally detained or imprisoned.
Glencoe Online Learning CenterTrade & Industrial Education HomeProduct InfoSite MapContact Us

The McGraw-Hill CompaniesGlencoe