The American Vision

Chapter 12: Reconstruction, 1865–1877

Chapter Overviews

This chapter takes a look at the policies, programs, and protections instituted during Reconstruction that changed the lives of former Confederates, freed African Americans, and impacted Southern politics for nearly a century.

Section 1 describes the conditions in the South following the Civil War and President Lincoln's plans for Reconstruction. As Union troops swept through Southern cities and villages during the war, they left behind a path of destruction. Devastation wrecked the Southern economy, crippled the transportation system, and left hundreds of thousands of Southerners unemployed. Most importantly, the emancipation of enslaved African Americans threw the South's agricultural economy into chaos. For newly freed African Americans, the Freedman's Bureau offered federal assistance to help them adjust to their new lives. President Lincoln's plans for Reconstruction called for leniency toward the South and a quick reconciliation. Radical Republicans in Congress, however, wanted to "revolutionize Southern institutions." Moderate and Radical Republicans devised a plan to change Southern society—the Wade-Davis Bill—but Lincoln blocked the bill's passage.

Section 2 discusses how the Radical Republicans seized control of Reconstruction. After Lincoln's assassination, President Johnson introduced a restoration plan that resembled Lincoln's moderate policy. Johnson's plan allowed new state governments in the South and pardons for Confederates. Radical Republicans opposed Johnson's plan, however, when former Confederate leaders showed up in Congress and Southern states introduced laws that limited African Americans' rights in the South. Republicans gained control of Congress and passed the Military Reconstruction Act, which divided the former Confederacy into military districts and broadened the rights of freed people. Johnson's interference with Republican policy was answered with impeachment, and he narrowly escaped conviction. In 1868 Republican war hero Ulysses S. Grant replaced a demoralized President Johnson. Under the protection of federal troops and new Constitutional Amendments, Southern African Americans began exercising their newly won right to vote.

Section 3 describes how white Southerners and African Americans responded to their new society under Republican Reconstruction. Opponents of Reconstruction grew resentful of Republican control in the South. Many Southerners resented the "Black Republican" governments that they thought controlled Southern politics. Secret resistance societies spread through the South, terrorizing Republican supporters and African Americans. Undeterred, African Americans took leadership roles in the Southern governments, sought educational opportunities, and established churches and social organizations. Republican reforms repealed the black codes, expanded public services, repaired the transportation system, and created a public education system. As acts of violence grew rampant, Congress passed three Enforcement Acts to combat disturbances in the South.

Section 4 follows the collapse of Reconstruction. President Grant lacked the political experience needed to guide the nation through Reconstruction. During his first term in office, the Republican-controlled Congress continued promoting its Reconstruction policies. Their economic policies angered many Southerners and convinced Liberal Republicans to join Southern Democrats in opposing Grant. During Grant's second term, a series of political scandals and a severe economic crisis hurt Republican authority in Congress. With the election of 1874, Democrats returned to power in Congress. As Democratic power spread, Americans' attention turned to growing economic concerns. After a disputed presidential election, a special commission voted Rutherford B. Hayes into the White House. Hayes pulled federal troops out of the South, ending Reconstruction. While some tried to build a "New South," many African Americans found themselves living once again in a society where they had little political power and few economic opportunities.